Assessing the visibility of raised pavement markers and alternative forms of delineation
Abstract
Raised Pavement Markers (RPMs) are used by a number of transportation agencies with the objective of improving roadway safety, especially in complex roadway geometries and along wet roads. Because of maintenance and cost issues, many transportation agencies are exploring alternatives to RPMs such as wet reflective pavement tape and barrier-mounted reflective delineators. In order to assess the relative potential of these devices to contribute to nighttime driving safety, the luminances of new and used RPM samples from different manufacturers and having different colors and of several alternative delineation devices were measured in the laboratory using a range of geometric conditions relevant to the driving task. From these data, Luminances under representative low-beam headlight illumination were determined and these quantities were used to estimate driver visual performance. Large variations in luminance yielded relatively small differences in visual performance for a viewing distance of 100 m, primarily because of the plateau characteristic of visual performance. Differences in threshold visibility distances were greater, with distances at identification threshold for the devices measured ranging approximately from 150 to 400 m. Used RPMs had luminances 20…30% lower than new RPMs but similar visibility characteristics as new devices. The analysis method in this study may be useful for practitioners seeking to characterize the visual effectiveness of RPMs and other roadway delineation devices and systems.
Keyword : visual performance, pavement markings, roadway delineators, visibility distance, retroreflectivity
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Bahar, G.; Mollett, C.; Persaud, B.; Lyon, C.; Smiley, A.; Smahel, T.; McGee, H. 2004. Safety Evaluation of Permanent Raised Pavement Markers. National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 518. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC US. 69 p. https://doi.org/10.17226/13724
Bhise, V. D.; Farber, E. I.; Saunby, C. S.; Troell, G. M.; Walunas, J. B.; Bernstein, A. 1977. Modeling vision with headlights in a systems context, SAE Technical Paper 770238. https://doi.org/10.4271/770238
Bullough, J. D.; Donnell, E. T.; Rea, M. S. 2013. To illuminate or not to illuminate: roadway lighting as it affects traffic safety at intersections, Accident Analysis & Prevention 53: 65–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2012.12.029
Bullough, J. D.; Radetsky, L. C. 2014. Roadway lighting, relative visual performance and safety, in Proceedings of the Illuminating Engineering Society Annual Conference 2014, 2–4 November 2014, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US, 203–207.
Bullough, J. D.; Skinner, N. P. 2014. Can linear light sources be beneficial to pilots?, in 2014 FAA Worldwide Airport Technology Transfer Conference: Innovations in Airport Safety and Pavement Technologies, 5–7 August 2014, Galloway, NJ, US, 1–13.
Bullough, J. D.; Skinner, N. P.; O’Rourke, C. P. 2008. Evaluation of New Reflective Materials for Overhead Highway Signage. Research Study No. C-05-08. New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT), Albany, NY, US. 52 p.
FHWA. 2011. Our Nation’s Highways: 2011. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Washington, DC, US. 64 p. Available from Internet: https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/pubs/hf/pl11028
Griffin, L. I. 1989. Using the Before-and-After Design with Yoked Comparisons to Estimate the Effectiveness of Accident Countermeasures Implemented at Multiple Treatment Locations. Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, US. 24 p. Available from Internet: https://tti.tamu.edu/documents/TTI-1989-ID4057.pdf
Haas, K. 2004. Evaluation of 3M™ Scotchlite™ Linear Delineation System. Final Report SPR 306-291. Oregon Department of Transportation, Salem, OR, US. 34 p. Available from Internet: https://digital.osl.state.or.us/islandora/object/osl:9887
Hammond, J. L.; Wegmann, F. J. 2001. Daytime effects of raised pavement markers on horizontal curves, ITE Journal 71(8): 38–41.
He, Y.; Rea, M.; Bierman, A.; Bullough, J. 1997. Evaluating light source efficacy under mesopic conditions using reaction times, Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society 26(1): 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/00994480.1997.10748173
Horberry, T.; Anderson, J.; Regan; M. A. 2006. The possible safety benefits of enhanced road markings: a driving simulator evaluation, Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 9(1): 77–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2005.09.002
IES. 2014. Roadway Lighting RP-8. Illuminating Engineering Society (IES), New York, NY, US.
Krammes, R. A.; Tyer, K. D. 1991. Post-mounted delineators and raised pavement markers: their effect on vehicle operations at horizontal curves on two-lane rural highways, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1324: 59–71.
Lay, M. G. 2009. Handbook of Road Technology. CRC Press. 944 p.
Liang, G.-H.; Zhang, D.; Du, S.-B.; Yin, Y.-J.; Li, R.; Shi, B.-R. 2018. Effects of the installation angle of raised pavement markers on a horizontal curve section on the line of sight induction performance, Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2018: 3541784. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3541784
Lu, Q.; Guo, L.; Yu, B. 2016. Design improvements of retroreflective raised pavement markers based on quantification of their physical properties, in Transportation Research Board 95th Annual Meeting, 10–14 January 2016, Washington, DC, US. 1–17.
Lyon, C.; Persaud, B.; Eccles, K. 2015. Safety Evaluation of Wet-Reflective Pavement Markings. Report FHWA-HRT-15-065. US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, US. 54 p. Available from Internet: https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/15065/15065.pdf
Niessner, C. W. 1984. Raised Pavement Markers at Hazardous Locations. Report FHWA-TS-84-215. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Washington, DC, US. 78 p.
NYSDOT. 1997. Raised Reflectorized Snowplowable Pavement Markers. New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT), Albany, NY, US. 8 p. Available from Internet: https://www.dot.ny.gov/spec-repository-us/685.03100018.pdf
Pike, A. M. 2017. Laboratory-based retroreflectivity assessment of raised retroreflective pavement markers, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2612: 113–120. https://doi.org/10.3141/2612-13
Rea, M. S. (Ed.). 2000. IESNA Lighting Handbook: Reference & Application. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. 1000 p.
Rea, M. S., Ouellette, M. J. 1991. Relative visual performance: a basis for application, Lighting Research & Technology 23(3): 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/096032719102300301
Schoettle, B.; Sivak, M.; Flannagan, M. J.; Kosmatka, W. J. 2004. A Market-Weighted Description of Low-Beam Headlighting Patterns in the U.S.: 2004. Report No UMTRI-2004-23. University of Michigan, US. 18 p. Available from Internet: "https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/55198/UMTRI-2004-23.pdf
Zador, P.; Stein, H. S.; Wright, P.; Hall; J. 1987. Effects of chevrons, post-mounted delineators, and raised pavement markers on driver behavior at roadway curves, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1114: 1–10.
Zador, P. L.; Wright, P. H.; Karpf, R. S. 1982. Effect of Pavement Markers on Nighttime Crashes in Georgia. Project No E-20-617. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Washington, DC, US. 21 p.